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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Pfadintegral</span></h1>
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<p><b>Pfadintegrale</b> sind eine auf <a href="Gregor_Wentzel" title="Gregor Wentzel">Gregor Wentzel</a>, <a href="Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a> und insbesondere <a href="Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Richard Feynman</a> zurückgehende Formulierung der <a href="Quantenmechanik" title="Quantenmechanik">Quantenmechanik</a>, bei der bei einer Bewegung eines Teilchens von Punkt <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A}">
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7daff47fa58cdfd29dc333def748ff5fa4c923e3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.743ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A}" loading="lazy"></span> zu Punkt <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B}">
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/47136aad860d145f75f3eed3022df827cee94d7a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B}" loading="lazy"></span> berücksichtigt werden und nicht, wie in der klassischen Mechanik, nur der Pfad mit kleinster <a href="Wirkung_(Physik)" title="Wirkung (Physik)">Wirkung</a>.
</p><p>Verallgemeinerte Pfadintegrale integrieren über Funktionen als Variablen und werden deshalb auch als <b>Funktionalintegrale</b> bezeichnet. Als solche sind sie seit langem ein grundlegendes Werkzeug in der <a href="Quantenfeldtheorie" title="Quantenfeldtheorie">Quantenfeldtheorie</a>. Störungsrechnung, Renormierungsgruppe usw. werden dort i.&nbsp;d.&nbsp;R. mit Hilfe von Pfadintegralen formuliert.<sup id="cite_ref-zj96_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zj96-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Darüber hinaus treten Pfadintegrale auch in der <a href="Statistische_Physik" title="Statistische Physik">klassischen statistischen Mechanik</a> bei der Berechnung von <a href="Zustandssumme" title="Zustandssumme">Zustandssummen</a> sowie in der <a href="Kritisches_Ph%C3%A4nomen" title="Kritisches Phänomen">kritischen Statik</a> und <a href="Kritisches_Ph%C3%A4nomen#Kritische_Dynamik" title="Kritisches Phänomen">Dynamik</a> auf. Die formale Gemeinsamkeit zwischen Quantenfeldtheorie und klassischer <a href="Statistische_Mechanik" title="Statistische Mechanik">statistischer Mechanik</a> umfasst auch Störungsrechnung, <a href="Renormierungsgruppe" title="Renormierungsgruppe">Renormierungsgruppen</a>, <a href="Instanton" title="Instanton">Instantonen</a> und andere Techniken.
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historisches,_Anwendungen,_Varianten"><span id="Historisches.2C_Anwendungen.2C_Varianten"></span>Historisches, Anwendungen, Varianten</h2></div>
<p>Das Pfadintegral wurde in den frühen 1920er Jahren von <a href="Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Norbert Wiener</a> in der <a href="Stochastik" title="Stochastik">Stochastik</a> eingeführt.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 1924 verwendete <a href="Gregor_Wentzel" title="Gregor Wentzel">Gregor Wentzel</a><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> das Pfadintegral in der Quantenmechanik, die Arbeiten waren aber danach weitgehend vergessen worden und blieben isoliert.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Einflussreicher war die Arbeit von <a href="Paul_Dirac" title="Paul Dirac">Paul Dirac</a> von 1933<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> und Diracs Darstellung in seinen <i><a href="The_Principles_of_Quantum_Mechanics" title="The Principles of Quantum Mechanics">The Principles of Quantum Mechanics</a></i>. <a href="Richard_Feynman" title="Richard Feynman">Feynman</a><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> entwickelte daraus die nach ihm benannte Pfadintegral-Formulierung der Quantenmechanik in den 1940er Jahren. Im Fall von Punktteilchen wird hier über alle möglichen Wege <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q(t)}">
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3b1f8079f76d0e8a89cf19db8fc43f34ec569d25.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.718ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle q(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> eines Teilchens zwischen zwei Punkten integriert. Bei der Verallgemeinerung in der Quantenfeldtheorie wird stattdessen über die Feldkonfigurationen <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \textstyle \Phi (x,t)}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \textstyle \Phi (x,t)}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ffa47fc63096a5d26bcac1a1f8219b8ac59fb3c4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.691ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \textstyle \Phi (x,t)}" loading="lazy"></span> integriert. In seiner allgemeinsten Version kann das Pfadintegral als rechnerischer Ausdruck für die Übergangsamplitude in Diracs abstrakter Hilbertraumformulierung der Quantenfeldtheorie verstanden werden. Diese entspricht nach <a href="Julian_Schwinger" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian Schwinger">Julian Schwingers</a> <a href="Schwingers_Quantenwirkungsprinzip" title="Schwingers Quantenwirkungsprinzip">Quantenwirkungsprinzip</a> der Forderung nach einer stationären, operatorwertigen Quantenwirkung.
</p><p>Die Übergangsamplitude zwischen zwei Konfigurationen ist gegeben durch das Pfadintegral über <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \textstyle \exp(\mathrm {i} S/\hbar )}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \textstyle \exp(\mathrm {i} S/\hbar )}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7db1113f5f8f4fef2b5b0c5588bc44c4614cc1ab.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.977ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \textstyle \exp(\mathrm {i} S/\hbar )}" loading="lazy"></span> mit entsprechenden Randbedingungen. Diese einfache Aussage kann zum grundlegenden Prinzip der Quantenmechanik erklärt werden, die Schrödingergleichung ist eine Konsequenz davon.
</p><p>In der Quantenmechanik und Quantenfeldtheorie ist der Exponent im Integranden der Pfadintegrale imaginär. Im Gegensatz dazu sind die Exponenten der Pfadintegrale der klassischen Physik reell. In der Mathematik sind Pfadintegrale bzw. Funktionalintegrale Teil der <a href="Funktionalanalysis" title="Funktionalanalysis">Funktionalanalysis</a>. Das Konvergenzverhalten und die Wohldefiniertheit des Pfadintegrals sind mathematisch nicht vollständig erforscht; die imaginärzeitige Formulierung mit dem <a href="Norbert_Wiener" title="Norbert Wiener">Wiener-Maß</a> kann in vielen Fällen exakt begründet werden und mit der sog. <a href="Wick-Rotation" title="Wick-Rotation">Wick-Rotation</a> besteht ein exakter Zusammenhang zwischen reell-wertiger und imaginärer Formulierung („Statistische Physik bzw. Quantenfeldtheorie“).
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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Quantenmechanik_von_Punktteilchen">Quantenmechanik von Punktteilchen</h2></div>
<p>Die Quantenmechanik eines Teilchens wird beschrieben durch die <a href="Schr%C3%B6dingergleichung" title="Schrödingergleichung">Schrödingergleichung</a>
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<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}\psi \left(q,t\right)=-{\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}H\left({\hat {p}},q,t\right)\psi \left(q,t\right),}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}\psi \left(q,t\right)=-{\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}H\left({\hat {p}},q,t\right)\psi \left(q,t\right),}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/6286aca868b1084103a6a2d476343c58398962cc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.005ex; width:34.366ex; height:5.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}\psi \left(q,t\right)=-{\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}H\left({\hat {p}},q,t\right)\psi \left(q,t\right),}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>wobei <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle H(p,q,t)}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle H(p,q,t)}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/04597b6ff133ff77373dcb85bb9f3b71cde45fcf.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.019ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle H(p,q,t)}" loading="lazy"></span> die <a href="Hamiltonfunktion" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamiltonfunktion">Hamiltonfunktion</a>, <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q}">
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/06809d64fa7c817ffc7e323f85997f783dbdf71d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.07ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle q}" loading="lazy"></span> eine Position im Raum und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\hat {p}}=-\mathrm {i} \hbar \nabla _{q}}">
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\hat {p}}=-\mathrm {i} \hbar \nabla _{q}}</annotation>
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</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e40d093c1f3f937620e9689d7230d734b3f77e3d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:11.233ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\hat {p}}=-\mathrm {i} \hbar \nabla _{q}}" loading="lazy"></span> der <a href="Impulsoperator" title="Impulsoperator">Impulsoperator</a> ist. Das Feynman’sche Pfadintegral
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<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \psi \left(q^{\prime },t^{\prime }\right)={\mathfrak {\mathcal {N}}}\int {\mathcal {D}}q\exp \left\{{\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}\int _{t}^{t^{\prime }}\mathrm {d} t^{\prime \prime }L\left(q,{\dot {q}},t^{\prime \prime }\right)\right\}\psi \left(q,t\right)}">
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<mi class="MJX-variant" mathvariant="normal">′<!-- ′ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>,</mo>
<msup>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-variant" mathvariant="normal">′<!-- ′ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">D</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mi>q</mi>
<mi>exp</mi>
<mo>⁡<!-- ⁡ --></mo>
<mrow>
<mo>{</mo>
<mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
</mfrac>
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<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msup>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-variant" mathvariant="normal">′<!-- ′ --></mi>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
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<msup>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-variant" mathvariant="normal">′<!-- ′ --></mi>
<mi class="MJX-variant" mathvariant="normal">′<!-- ′ --></mi>
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<mi>L</mi>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>q</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>q</mi>
<mo>˙<!-- ˙ --></mo>
</mover>
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</mrow>
<mo>,</mo>
<msup>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-variant" mathvariant="normal">′<!-- ′ --></mi>
<mi class="MJX-variant" mathvariant="normal">′<!-- ′ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>}</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>q</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \psi \left(q^{\prime },t^{\prime }\right)={\mathfrak {\mathcal {N}}}\int {\mathcal {D}}q\exp \left\{{\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}\int _{t}^{t^{\prime }}\mathrm {d} t^{\prime \prime }L\left(q,{\dot {q}},t^{\prime \prime }\right)\right\}\psi \left(q,t\right)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/895f35c550a840fb5c85f030af425b3ce583d2de.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:53.852ex; height:7.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \psi \left(q^{\prime },t^{\prime }\right)={\mathfrak {\mathcal {N}}}\int {\mathcal {D}}q\exp \left\{{\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}\int _{t}^{t^{\prime }}\mathrm {d} t^{\prime \prime }L\left(q,{\dot {q}},t^{\prime \prime }\right)\right\}\psi \left(q,t\right)}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>erstreckt sich über die Pfade <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q(t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>q</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle q(t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3b1f8079f76d0e8a89cf19db8fc43f34ec569d25.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:3.718ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle q(t)}" loading="lazy"></span> des Teilchens und liefert zur Lösung <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \psi (q,t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>q</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \psi (q,t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8ae63ac01548619f4c3c78988c4a0c54d1c73f3a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.266ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \psi (q,t)}" loading="lazy"></span> der Schrödingergleichung zum Zeitpunkt <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>t</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/65658b7b223af9e1acc877d848888ecdb4466560.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.84ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t}" loading="lazy"></span> die Lösung zum Zeitpunkt <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t^{\prime }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-variant" mathvariant="normal">′<!-- ′ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t^{\prime }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7e9a057ecd0f62c601104211f296bbdce89b58a2.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.524ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t^{\prime }}" loading="lazy"></span>. Der konstante Normierungsfaktor <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {\mathcal {N}}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {\mathcal {N}}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2f0d912256f934029cacde718bd2fe29af694971.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; margin-left: -0.062ex; width:2.337ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathfrak {\mathcal {N}}}}" loading="lazy"></span> ist i.&nbsp;A. uninteressant, <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \textstyle L\left(q,{\dot {q}},t\right)=p{\dot {q}}-H\left(p,q,t\right)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>L</mi>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>q</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>q</mi>
<mo>˙<!-- ˙ --></mo>
</mover>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mi>p</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mover>
<mi>q</mi>
<mo>˙<!-- ˙ --></mo>
</mover>
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</mrow>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>H</mi>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>p</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>q</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \textstyle L\left(q,{\dot {q}},t\right)=p{\dot {q}}-H\left(p,q,t\right)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/3c243df9766b0bf53e17625b6723cfa275d4d3f6.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:27.025ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \textstyle L\left(q,{\dot {q}},t\right)=p{\dot {q}}-H\left(p,q,t\right)}" loading="lazy"></span> ist die zur Hamiltonfunktion gehörende <a href="Lagrangefunktion" class="mw-redirect" title="Lagrangefunktion">Lagrangefunktion</a>.
</p><p>In etwas kompakterer Schreibweise besagt das Pfadintegral, dass die Wahrscheinlichkeit, das Teilchen zum Zeitpunkt <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t^{\prime }}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-variant" mathvariant="normal">′<!-- ′ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t^{\prime }}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7e9a057ecd0f62c601104211f296bbdce89b58a2.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.524ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t^{\prime }}" loading="lazy"></span> am Punkt <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>B</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/47136aad860d145f75f3eed3022df827cee94d7a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B}" loading="lazy"></span> zu finden, wenn es sich zum Zeitpunkt <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle t}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>t</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle t}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/65658b7b223af9e1acc877d848888ecdb4466560.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:0.84ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle t}" loading="lazy"></span> bei <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>A</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7daff47fa58cdfd29dc333def748ff5fa4c923e3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.743ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A}" loading="lazy"></span> befunden hat, proportional ist zu <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \textstyle \left|Z(B,A)\right|^{2}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<msup>
<mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>B</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>A</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>|</mo>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \textstyle \left|Z(B,A)\right|^{2}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/1e13153dcac9f84c3947a495fef8ecbb82cfb7f8.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.379ex; height:3.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \textstyle \left|Z(B,A)\right|^{2}}" loading="lazy"></span> mit
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Z\left(B,A\right)={\mathfrak {\mathcal {N}}}\int {\mathcal {D}}q\exp \left({\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}S\right).}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>Z</mi>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>B</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>A</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">D</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mi>q</mi>
<mi>exp</mi>
<mo>⁡<!-- ⁡ --></mo>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mi>S</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Z\left(B,A\right)={\mathfrak {\mathcal {N}}}\int {\mathcal {D}}q\exp \left({\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}S\right).}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7d0875166f447c763edc484250a860559efc662c.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:31.27ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Z\left(B,A\right)={\mathfrak {\mathcal {N}}}\int {\mathcal {D}}q\exp \left({\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}S\right).}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Das Integral beinhaltet hier nur die Pfade von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (A,t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>A</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (A,t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/0e5fa72826acdc74f74757bc01de9b530ff167bb.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:5.426ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (A,t)}" loading="lazy"></span> zu <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle (B,t^{\prime })}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>B</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<msup>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-variant" mathvariant="normal">′<!-- ′ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle (B,t^{\prime })}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/dc20de929cb493279fa00781c93fd230face6e56.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.132ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle (B,t^{\prime })}" loading="lazy"></span>, und es gilt<sup id="cite_ref-kh82_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kh82-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Z\left(B,A\right)={\mathfrak {\mathcal {N'}}}\int \mathrm {d} q_{c}Z\left(B,C\right)Z\left(C,A\right).}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>Z</mi>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>B</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>A</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<msup>
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">N</mi>
<mo>′</mo>
</msup>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<msub>
<mi>q</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>c</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>B</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>C</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>Z</mi>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>C</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>A</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Z\left(B,A\right)={\mathfrak {\mathcal {N'}}}\int \mathrm {d} q_{c}Z\left(B,C\right)Z\left(C,A\right).}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/e4c51d4746ae6a1ba9990e971ad759400da398b3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:39.111ex; height:5.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Z\left(B,A\right)={\mathfrak {\mathcal {N'}}}\int \mathrm {d} q_{c}Z\left(B,C\right)Z\left(C,A\right).}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Herleitung">Herleitung</h3></div>
<p>Der Übergang von der Schrödingergleichung zum Pfadintegral erfordert keine Quantenmechanik. Vielmehr sind auch andere Differentialgleichungen ähnlicher Struktur (z.&nbsp;B. <a href="Fokker-Planck-Gleichung" title="Fokker-Planck-Gleichung">Fokker-Planck-Gleichungen</a>) äquivalent zu einem Pfadintegral.<sup id="cite_ref-FokkPlanckDeriv_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FokkPlanckDeriv-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Der Eindeutigkeit wegen wird festgelegt, dass in allen Termen des Hamilton-Operators <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle H\left(p,q,t\right)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>H</mi>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>p</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>q</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle H\left(p,q,t\right)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/52650e5cc8f50a1e016379985cb9cc8cf80c9979.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:9.406ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle H\left(p,q,t\right)}" loading="lazy"></span> die Nabla-Operatoren von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p=-\mathrm {i} \hbar \nabla _{q}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>p</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
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<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
<msub>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∇<!-- ∇ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>q</mi>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p=-\mathrm {i} \hbar \nabla _{q}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c979b72569b9ed7e8d4c49be47f42dcbc5a26ec6.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -1.005ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:11.043ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p=-\mathrm {i} \hbar \nabla _{q}}" loading="lazy"></span> <i>links</i> stehen. Eine Integration der Schrödingergleichung für eine Raumdimension über ein Zeitintervall <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \varepsilon }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>ε<!-- ε --></mi>
</mstyle>
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<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \varepsilon }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a30c89172e5b88edbd45d3e2772c7f5e562e5173.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.083ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \varepsilon }" loading="lazy"></span> liefert
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\psi \left(q',t+\varepsilon \right)&amp;=\left(1-{\frac {\mathrm {i} \epsilon }{\hbar }}H\left(-\mathrm {i} \hbar \nabla _{q'},q',t\right)\right)\psi \left(q',t\right)+{\mathcal {O}}\left(\varepsilon ^{2}\right)\\&amp;=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\mathrm {d} q\left(\left(1-{\frac {\mathrm {i} \epsilon }{\hbar }}H\left(\mathrm {i} \hbar \nabla _{q},q,t\right)\right)\delta \left(q^{\prime }-q\right)\right)\psi \left(q,t\right)+{\mathcal {O}}\left(\varepsilon ^{2}\right).\end{aligned}}}">
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<mtr>
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<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
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<msup>
<mi>q</mi>
<mo>′</mo>
</msup>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>ε<!-- ε --></mi>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mtd>
<mtd>
<mi></mi>
<mo>=</mo>
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<mo>(</mo>
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<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
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<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
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<mi>ϵ<!-- ϵ --></mi>
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<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
</mfrac>
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<mi>H</mi>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
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<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">O</mi>
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<msup>
<mi>ε<!-- ε --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
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</msup>
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<mtr>
<mtd></mtd>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
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<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mi>H</mi>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
<msub>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∇<!-- ∇ --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>q</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>q</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
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</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>δ<!-- δ --></mi>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<msup>
<mi>q</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-variant" mathvariant="normal">′<!-- ′ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>q</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mi>q</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>+</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">O</mi>
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<msup>
<mi>ε<!-- ε --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
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</msup>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>.</mo>
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</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\psi \left(q',t+\varepsilon \right)&amp;=\left(1-{\frac {\mathrm {i} \epsilon }{\hbar }}H\left(-\mathrm {i} \hbar \nabla _{q'},q',t\right)\right)\psi \left(q',t\right)+{\mathcal {O}}\left(\varepsilon ^{2}\right)\\&amp;=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\mathrm {d} q\left(\left(1-{\frac {\mathrm {i} \epsilon }{\hbar }}H\left(\mathrm {i} \hbar \nabla _{q},q,t\right)\right)\delta \left(q^{\prime }-q\right)\right)\psi \left(q,t\right)+{\mathcal {O}}\left(\varepsilon ^{2}\right).\end{aligned}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/997b5fffa691721281f23c9d0922fdb22973e453.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -5.351ex; margin-bottom: -0.32ex; width:75.816ex; height:12.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\psi \left(q',t+\varepsilon \right)&amp;=\left(1-{\frac {\mathrm {i} \epsilon }{\hbar }}H\left(-\mathrm {i} \hbar \nabla _{q'},q',t\right)\right)\psi \left(q',t\right)+{\mathcal {O}}\left(\varepsilon ^{2}\right)\\&amp;=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\mathrm {d} q\left(\left(1-{\frac {\mathrm {i} \epsilon }{\hbar }}H\left(\mathrm {i} \hbar \nabla _{q},q,t\right)\right)\delta \left(q^{\prime }-q\right)\right)\psi \left(q,t\right)+{\mathcal {O}}\left(\varepsilon ^{2}\right).\end{aligned}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Das andere Vorzeichen des Nabla-Operators in der zweiten Zeile erklärt sich daraus, dass die Ableitungen in allen Termen der Hamilton-Funktion hier <i>rechts</i> stehen und auf die <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \delta }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>δ<!-- δ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \delta }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c5321cfa797202b3e1f8620663ff43c4660ea03a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.049ex; height:2.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \delta }" loading="lazy"></span>-Funktion wirken. Eine <a href="Partielle_Integration" title="Partielle Integration">partielle Integration</a> führt zurück zur ersten Zeile. Einsetzen des Fourier-Integrals
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \delta \left(q'-q\right)=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {\mathrm {d} p}{2\pi \hbar }}\mathrm {e} ^{{\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}p\left(q'-q\right)}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>δ<!-- δ --></mi>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<msup>
<mi>q</mi>
<mo>′</mo>
</msup>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>q</mi>
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<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
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<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
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<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
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<mi>p</mi>
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<mi>π<!-- π --></mi>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mrow>
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<mi>q</mi>
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<mi>q</mi>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \delta \left(q'-q\right)=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {\mathrm {d} p}{2\pi \hbar }}\mathrm {e} ^{{\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}p\left(q'-q\right)}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/09dd2711187f25c07aef4ee5aa982199851891d2.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:30.002ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \delta \left(q'-q\right)=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {\mathrm {d} p}{2\pi \hbar }}\mathrm {e} ^{{\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}p\left(q'-q\right)}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>ergibt
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\psi \left(q',t+\varepsilon \right)&amp;=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\mathrm {d} q\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {\mathrm {d} p}{2\pi \hbar }}\left(\left(1-{\frac {\mathrm {i} \epsilon }{\hbar }}H\left(p,q,t\right)\right)\mathrm {e} ^{{\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}p\left(q'-q\right)}\right)\psi \left(q,t\right)+{\mathcal {O}}\left(\epsilon ^{2}\right)\\&amp;=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\mathrm {d} q\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {\mathrm {d} p}{2\pi \hbar }}\exp \left\{{\frac {\mathrm {i} \varepsilon }{\hbar }}\left[p{\frac {q'-q}{\varepsilon }}-H\left(p,q,t\right)\right]\right\}\psi \left(q,t\right)+{\mathcal {O}}\left(\varepsilon ^{2}\right).\end{aligned}}}">
<semantics>
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<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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</mrow>
<mi>exp</mi>
<mo>⁡<!-- ⁡ --></mo>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow>
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<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
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<mi>ε<!-- ε --></mi>
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<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
<mrow>
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<mi>q</mi>
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</mrow>
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<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<msup>
<mi>ε<!-- ε --></mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>2</mn>
</mrow>
</msup>
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</mrow>
<mo>.</mo>
</mtd>
</mtr>
</mtable>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\psi \left(q',t+\varepsilon \right)&amp;=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\mathrm {d} q\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {\mathrm {d} p}{2\pi \hbar }}\left(\left(1-{\frac {\mathrm {i} \epsilon }{\hbar }}H\left(p,q,t\right)\right)\mathrm {e} ^{{\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}p\left(q'-q\right)}\right)\psi \left(q,t\right)+{\mathcal {O}}\left(\epsilon ^{2}\right)\\&amp;=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\mathrm {d} q\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {\mathrm {d} p}{2\pi \hbar }}\exp \left\{{\frac {\mathrm {i} \varepsilon }{\hbar }}\left[p{\frac {q'-q}{\varepsilon }}-H\left(p,q,t\right)\right]\right\}\psi \left(q,t\right)+{\mathcal {O}}\left(\varepsilon ^{2}\right).\end{aligned}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a989fe57eb476a9b3e5887d2aa3abc2c567826d0.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -5.386ex; margin-bottom: -0.286ex; width:81.967ex; height:12.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\psi \left(q',t+\varepsilon \right)&amp;=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\mathrm {d} q\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {\mathrm {d} p}{2\pi \hbar }}\left(\left(1-{\frac {\mathrm {i} \epsilon }{\hbar }}H\left(p,q,t\right)\right)\mathrm {e} ^{{\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}p\left(q'-q\right)}\right)\psi \left(q,t\right)+{\mathcal {O}}\left(\epsilon ^{2}\right)\\&amp;=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\mathrm {d} q\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\frac {\mathrm {d} p}{2\pi \hbar }}\exp \left\{{\frac {\mathrm {i} \varepsilon }{\hbar }}\left[p{\frac {q'-q}{\varepsilon }}-H\left(p,q,t\right)\right]\right\}\psi \left(q,t\right)+{\mathcal {O}}\left(\varepsilon ^{2}\right).\end{aligned}}}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Diese Gleichung liefert <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \textstyle \psi (q^{\prime },t+\varepsilon )}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msup>
<mi>q</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-variant" mathvariant="normal">′<!-- ′ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo>+</mo>
<mi>ε<!-- ε --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \textstyle \psi (q^{\prime },t+\varepsilon )}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/60f651e88030b9d99604f2c85fa12d906ec11e1a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:10.884ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \textstyle \psi (q^{\prime },t+\varepsilon )}" loading="lazy"></span> als Funktional von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \psi (q,t)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>q</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \psi (q,t)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8ae63ac01548619f4c3c78988c4a0c54d1c73f3a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.266ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \psi (q,t)}" loading="lazy"></span>. Eine <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle N=(t^{\prime }-t)/\varepsilon }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>N</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msup>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-variant" mathvariant="normal">′<!-- ′ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>t</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>/</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>ε<!-- ε --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle N=(t^{\prime }-t)/\varepsilon }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/2668cde81caf88f927880bf49acb51297db901d4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:14.422ex; height:3.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle N=(t^{\prime }-t)/\varepsilon }" loading="lazy"></span>-malige Iteration liefert <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \textstyle \psi (q^{\prime },t^{\prime })}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mstyle displaystyle="false" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msup>
<mi>q</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-variant" mathvariant="normal">′<!-- ′ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>,</mo>
<msup>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-variant" mathvariant="normal">′<!-- ′ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \textstyle \psi (q^{\prime },t^{\prime })}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/b78bf4e69b67d9b272b2e81f50fda49a0dfab3c5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:7.645ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \textstyle \psi (q^{\prime },t^{\prime })}" loading="lazy"></span> in Gestalt eines Pfadintegrals über <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle q}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>q</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle q}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/06809d64fa7c817ffc7e323f85997f783dbdf71d.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:1.07ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle q}" loading="lazy"></span> und <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>p</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}" loading="lazy"></span>,
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \psi \left(q^{\prime },t^{\prime }\right)=\lim _{N\rightarrow \infty }\left(\prod _{n=1}^{N}\int {\frac {\mathrm {d} q_{n}\mathrm {d} p_{n}}{2\pi \hbar }}\right)\exp \left\{{\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}\sum _{n=1}^{N}\varepsilon \left[p_{n}{\dot {q}}_{n}-H\left(p_{n},q_{n},t_{n}\right)\right]\right\}\psi \left(q_{1},t_{1}\right).}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<msup>
<mi>q</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-variant" mathvariant="normal">′<!-- ′ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
<mo>,</mo>
<msup>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-variant" mathvariant="normal">′<!-- ′ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msup>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
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<mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">lim</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>N</mi>
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<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
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<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
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<mo>∑<!-- ∑ --></mo>
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<mi>n</mi>
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</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>N</mi>
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<mi>ε<!-- ε --></mi>
<mrow>
<mo>[</mo>
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<mi>q</mi>
<mo>˙<!-- ˙ --></mo>
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</mrow>
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<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi>H</mi>
<mrow>
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<mrow>
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<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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<mi>q</mi>
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<mi>n</mi>
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<mi>ψ<!-- ψ --></mi>
<mrow>
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<mrow>
<msub>
<mi>q</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mn>1</mn>
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</msub>
<mo>,</mo>
<msub>
<mi>t</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
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</mrow>
</msub>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \psi \left(q^{\prime },t^{\prime }\right)=\lim _{N\rightarrow \infty }\left(\prod _{n=1}^{N}\int {\frac {\mathrm {d} q_{n}\mathrm {d} p_{n}}{2\pi \hbar }}\right)\exp \left\{{\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}\sum _{n=1}^{N}\varepsilon \left[p_{n}{\dot {q}}_{n}-H\left(p_{n},q_{n},t_{n}\right)\right]\right\}\psi \left(q_{1},t_{1}\right).}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/c8ec13fc75276276fb09cba70f1fe014d1f42d12.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.171ex; width:81.401ex; height:7.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \psi \left(q^{\prime },t^{\prime }\right)=\lim _{N\rightarrow \infty }\left(\prod _{n=1}^{N}\int {\frac {\mathrm {d} q_{n}\mathrm {d} p_{n}}{2\pi \hbar }}\right)\exp \left\{{\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}\sum _{n=1}^{N}\varepsilon \left[p_{n}{\dot {q}}_{n}-H\left(p_{n},q_{n},t_{n}\right)\right]\right\}\psi \left(q_{1},t_{1}\right).}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Diese „Hamiltonsche“ Form des Pfadintegrals wird gewöhnlich durch Ausführen der <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>p</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}" loading="lazy"></span>-Integrale vereinfacht.<sup id="cite_ref-kh82_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kh82-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dies ist in geschlossener Form möglich, da <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle p}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>p</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle p}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/81eac1e205430d1f40810df36a0edffdc367af36.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; margin-left: -0.089ex; width:1.259ex; height:2.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle p}" loading="lazy"></span> im Exponenten nur quadratisch vorkommt (wegen möglicher Komplikationen in Spezialfällen siehe Ref.<sup id="cite_ref-kh82_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kh82-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). Das Ergebnis ist das oben aufgeführte Feynmansche Pfadintegral.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Quantenfeldtheorie">Quantenfeldtheorie</h2></div>
<p>Das Pfadintegral (Funktionalintegral) erstreckt sich hier über einen häufig unendlich-dimensionalen Funktionenraum, und nicht wie ein gewöhnliches Integral über einen endlichdimensionalen Raum. Die Koordinate <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}" loading="lazy"></span> fungiert im Pfadintegral nur als kontinuierlicher Index. Eine präzise Definition beinhaltet die Approximation der Funktion <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Phi (x)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi mathvariant="normal">Φ<!-- Φ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Phi (x)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/79e4f01c93494fbb5dcd75761f4468121b00b294.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.817ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Phi (x)}" loading="lazy"></span> durch die Funktionswerte <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Phi (x_{n})}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi mathvariant="normal">Φ<!-- Φ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<msub>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Phi (x_{n})}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/5b0625d133f5473a4001f4337252866d822e88c7.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:6.036ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Phi (x_{n})}" loading="lazy"></span> auf einem Raumgitter mit Gitterkonstante <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ffd2487510aa438433a2579450ab2b3d557e5edc.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.23ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a}" loading="lazy"></span> sowie den Limes <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a\to 0}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
<mn>0</mn>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a\to 0}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/ad1af22c1cd2d9f30958c076d8e63a44fbb80cd5.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:6.006ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a\to 0}" loading="lazy"></span>,
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Z=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\mathcal {D}}\phi \exp \left({\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}S\left(\phi \right)\right)=\lim _{N\rightarrow \infty }\prod _{n=1}^{N}\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\mathrm {d} \phi \left(x_{n}\right)\exp \left({\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}S\left(\phi \right)\right).}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>Z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">D</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mi>ϕ<!-- ϕ --></mi>
<mi>exp</mi>
<mo>⁡<!-- ⁡ --></mo>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mi>S</mi>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mi>ϕ<!-- ϕ --></mi>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>=</mo>
<munder>
<mo movablelimits="true" form="prefix">lim</mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>N</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
</munder>
<munderover>
<mo>∏<!-- ∏ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<mn>1</mn>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>N</mi>
</mrow>
</munderover>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">d</mi>
</mrow>
<mi>ϕ<!-- ϕ --></mi>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<msub>
<mi>x</mi>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi>n</mi>
</mrow>
</msub>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mi>exp</mi>
<mo>⁡<!-- ⁡ --></mo>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mfrac>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">i</mi>
</mrow>
<mi class="MJX-variant">ℏ<!-- ℏ --></mi>
</mfrac>
</mrow>
<mi>S</mi>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mi>ϕ<!-- ϕ --></mi>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>.</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Z=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\mathcal {D}}\phi \exp \left({\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}S\left(\phi \right)\right)=\lim _{N\rightarrow \infty }\prod _{n=1}^{N}\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\mathrm {d} \phi \left(x_{n}\right)\exp \left({\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}S\left(\phi \right)\right).}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/df65cf06c5e801d32cbd8d65cc03e508e0e42e77.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -3.005ex; width:66.566ex; height:7.343ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Z=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\mathcal {D}}\phi \exp \left({\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}S\left(\phi \right)\right)=\lim _{N\rightarrow \infty }\prod _{n=1}^{N}\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }\mathrm {d} \phi \left(x_{n}\right)\exp \left({\frac {\mathrm {i} }{\hbar }}S\left(\phi \right)\right).}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>Der Integrand eines Pfadintegrals ist eine <a href="Exponentialfunktion" title="Exponentialfunktion">Exponentialfunktion</a>, der Exponent enthält im Quantenmechanik-Fall das Wirkungsintegral <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle S}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>S</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle S}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/4611d85173cd3b508e67077d4a1252c9c05abca2.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.499ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle S}" loading="lazy"></span>, ein Funktional der Funktion <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \Phi (x)}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi mathvariant="normal">Φ<!-- Φ --></mi>
<mo stretchy="false">(</mo>
<mi>x</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">)</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \Phi (x)}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/79e4f01c93494fbb5dcd75761f4468121b00b294.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:4.817ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \Phi (x)}" loading="lazy"></span>. Im Fall der statistischen Mechanik schreibt man Pfadintegrale gewöhnlich in der Form
</p>
<dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle Z=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\mathcal {D}}\phi \exp \left(-{\mathcal {H}}\left(\phi \right)\right),}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>Z</mi>
<mo>=</mo>
<msubsup>
<mo>∫<!-- ∫ --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mrow>
</msubsup>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">D</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mi>ϕ<!-- ϕ --></mi>
<mi>exp</mi>
<mo>⁡<!-- ⁡ --></mo>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mrow>
<mo>−<!-- − --></mo>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">H</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mrow>
<mo>(</mo>
<mi>ϕ<!-- ϕ --></mi>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
</mrow>
<mo>)</mo>
</mrow>
<mo>,</mo>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle Z=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\mathcal {D}}\phi \exp \left(-{\mathcal {H}}\left(\phi \right)\right),}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/8350ba1cf277a6b75d4a3a95b63d178829b3f8be.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; width:26.539ex; height:6.009ex;" alt="{\displaystyle Z=\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }{\mathcal {D}}\phi \exp \left(-{\mathcal {H}}\left(\phi \right)\right),}" loading="lazy"></span></dd></dl>
<p>wobei <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {H}}}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mi class="MJX-tex-caligraphic" mathvariant="script">H</mi>
</mrow>
</mrow>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\mathcal {H}}}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/19ef4c7b923a5125ac91aa491838a95ee15b804f.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.964ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\mathcal {H}}}" loading="lazy"></span> als Hamiltonian bezeichnet wird. Quantenfeldtheorien sowie Feldtheorien der kritischen Dynamik oder Statik erfordern oft eine endliche Gitterkonstante (Regularisierung, Cutoff).<sup id="cite_ref-zj96_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zj96-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Der Limes <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle a\to 0,N\to \infty }">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>a</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
<mn>0</mn>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>N</mi>
<mo stretchy="false">→<!-- → --></mo>
<mi mathvariant="normal">∞<!-- ∞ --></mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle a\to 0,N\to \infty }</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/a4a64a22c2654c6d5b3ba2a4f7472968789e0df1.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:15.042ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle a\to 0,N\to \infty }" loading="lazy"></span> ist in diesem Fall erst nach Berechnung der physikalischen Größen ausführbar.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>Für <a href="Fermion" title="Fermion">Fermionen</a> werden <a href="Gra%C3%9Fmann-Zahl" title="Graßmann-Zahl">Grassmann-Variablen</a> (antikommutierende Variablen) zur Bildung von Pfadintegralen herangezogen.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Resümee"><span id="Res.C3.BCmee"></span>Resümee</h2></div>
<p>In der klassischen Physik kann man die Bewegung von Teilchen (und zum Beispiel Lichtstrahlen) zwischen zwei Punkten <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A,B}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>A</mi>
<mo>,</mo>
<mi>B</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A,B}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/96c3298ea9aa77c226be56a7d8515baaa517b90b.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.671ex; width:4.541ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A,B}" loading="lazy"></span> in Raum und Zeit mit dem <a href="Hamiltonsches_Prinzip" title="Hamiltonsches Prinzip">Prinzip der kleinsten Wirkung</a> (Hamiltonsches Prinzip) im Rahmen der <a href="Variationsrechnung" title="Variationsrechnung">Variationsrechnung</a> berechnen. Die <a href="Wirkung_(Physik)" title="Wirkung (Physik)">Wirkung</a> ist das zeitliche Integral der Differenz zwischen kinetischer und potentieller Energie (<a href="Lagrangefunktion" class="mw-redirect" title="Lagrangefunktion">Lagrangefunktion</a>) von Startzeitpunkt, an dem sich das Teilchen in <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>A</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7daff47fa58cdfd29dc333def748ff5fa4c923e3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.743ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A}" loading="lazy"></span> befindet, bis zum Endzeitpunkt, an dem sich das Teilchen in <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>B</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/47136aad860d145f75f3eed3022df827cee94d7a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B}" loading="lazy"></span> befindet. Nach dem Hamiltonschen Prinzip ist die Wirkung für den gewählten Weg ein Extremum, ihre Variation verschwindet. Für ein freies Teilchen ohne <a href="Potential_(Physik)" title="Potential (Physik)">Potential</a> ergibt sich eine Bewegung auf einer Geraden von einem Punkt <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>A</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7daff47fa58cdfd29dc333def748ff5fa4c923e3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.743ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A}" loading="lazy"></span> zu einem Punkt <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>B</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/47136aad860d145f75f3eed3022df827cee94d7a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B}" loading="lazy"></span>. Ein Beispiel, in dem der Weg keine Gerade mehr ist, ist der eines Lichtstrahls, der Medien unterschiedlicher optischer Dichte passiert (was sich mit Hilfe eines Potentials in der Lagrangefunktion beschreiben lässt), hier ist der günstigste Weg (<a href="Optischer_Weg" class="mw-redirect" title="Optischer Weg">optischer Weg</a>) keine Gerade mehr: Es kommt zur Brechung des Lichtstrahls.
</p><p>In der Quantenmechanik integriert man mit einem Pfadintegral über alle möglichen Pfade, auf denen das Teilchen von <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle A}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>A</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle A}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/7daff47fa58cdfd29dc333def748ff5fa4c923e3.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.743ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle A}" loading="lazy"></span> nach <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle B}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>B</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle B}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/47136aad860d145f75f3eed3022df827cee94d7a.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.764ex; height:2.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle B}" loading="lazy"></span> gelangen könnte, und gewichtet die Pfade dabei mit einem „Phasenfaktor“ proportional zur Exponentialfunktion des imaginär gemachten und durch die <a href="Reduzierte_Planck-Konstante" class="mw-redirect" title="Reduzierte Planck-Konstante">reduzierte Planck-Konstante</a> geteilten <a href="Wirkung_(Physik)" title="Wirkung (Physik)">Wirkungsfunktionals</a>. Man nennt das auch <i>Summe aller Pfade</i>, weil hierbei über alle Pfade integriert wird, wenn auch mit unterschiedlichem Gewicht. Die <a href="Amplitude" title="Amplitude">Amplitude</a> ist bei jedem Pfad gleich, aber die <a href="Phase_(Schwingung)" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase (Schwingung)">Phase</a>, die von der jeweiligen Wirkung bestimmt wird, ist unterschiedlich. Der klassische Pfad zeichnet sich dadurch aus, dass bei ihm die Variation der Wirkung nach dem <a href="Hamiltonsches_Prinzip" title="Hamiltonsches Prinzip">Hamiltonschen Prinzip</a> verschwindet. Pfade in der Umgebung tragen also in etwa mit gleicher Phase bei, was zu konstruktiver Interferenz führt. Bei weiter entfernt liegenden Pfaden oszilliert der Integrand bei Wirkungen, die groß gegen die <a href="Planck-Konstante" title="Planck-Konstante">Planck-Konstante</a> sind (klassischer Grenzfall), dagegen so schnell, dass sich die Beiträge dieser Wege gegenseitig aufheben. Sind die Wirkungen dagegen wie bei typischen quantenmechanischen Systemen in der Größenordnung des Planckschen Wirkungsquantums, tragen auch Pfade neben dem klassischen Pfad zum Pfadintegral bei.
</p><p>Insofern stellt sich das Hamiltonsche Prinzip für Teilchenbahnen nur als Spezialfall des allgemeineren <a href="Hamiltonsches_Prinzip#Das_Hamiltonsche_Prinzip_für_Felder" title="Hamiltonsches Prinzip">Hamiltonschen Prinzips für Felder</a> heraus. Formal wird dabei in der Feynman’schen Formulierung die Integration über alle möglichen (generalisierten) Orte durch eine Integration über alle möglichen Feldkonfiguration substituiert, womit die eigentliche Rolle des Pfadintegrals zum Lösen von Wellen- bzw. Feldgleichungen deutlicher wird, so wie es im letzten Abschnitt für die Schrödingergleichung angedeutet wurde. Dieser Sachverhalt kann dabei auch in Analogie zum Übergang von der oben erwähnten <a href="Geometrische_Optik" title="Geometrische Optik">Strahlenoptik</a> zur <a href="Wellenoptik" title="Wellenoptik">Wellenoptik</a> verstanden werden. Andererseits motiviert das modifizierte Hamiltonsche Prinzip mit der Ersetzung von Phasenraumkoordinaten durch Felder die <a href="Quantisierung_(Physik)" title="Quantisierung (Physik)">kanonische Quantisierung</a> der Euler-Lagrange-Feldgleichungen, wodurch eine vollständig operatorwertige Behandlung der Quantenmechanik möglich wird und damit ein alternativer Zugang zur Quantenfeldtheorie geschaffen ist, der hier nicht besprochen wurde.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bücher"><span id="B.C3.BCcher"></span>Bücher</h2></div>
<ul><li><a href="Hagen_Kleinert" title="Hagen Kleinert">Hagen Kleinert</a>: <i>Pfadintegrale in Quantenmechanik, Statistik und Polymerphysik.</i> Spektrum Akademischer Verlag 1993 (vergriffen, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/b4/psfiles/">online lesbar hier</a>). Neueste englische Auflage: <i>Path Integrals in Quantum Mechanics, Statistics, Polymer Physics, and Financial Markets.</i> 4th edition, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.worldscibooks.com/physics/6223.html">World Scientific (Singapore, 2006)</a> (auch <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.physik.fu-berlin.de/~kleinert/b5">online verfügbar</a>).</li>
<li><a href="Gert_Roepstorff" title="Gert Roepstorff">Gert Roepstorff</a>: <i>Pfadintegrale in der Quantenphysik.</i> Vieweg 1991, 1997 (englische Übersetzung: <i>Path integral approach to quantum physics – an introduction.</i> Springer 1996).</li>
<li>Richard P. Feynman, Albert R. Hibbs: <i>Quantum Mechanics and Path Integrals, Emended Edition, 2005.</i> Dover Publications, 2010 (Herausgeber Daniel F.&nbsp;Styer, der zahlreiche Fehler der Ausgabe von 1965 korrigierte), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oberlin.edu/physics/dstyer/FeynmanHibbs/">Website zur Neuauflage mit Ergänzungen</a>.</li>
<li><a href="Jean_Zinn-Justin" title="Jean Zinn-Justin">Jean Zinn-Justin</a>: <i>Path Integrals in Quantum Mechanics.</i> Oxford University Press, 2005.</li>
<li><a href="Harald_J.W._M%C3%BCller-Kirsten" class="mw-redirect" title="Harald J.W. Müller-Kirsten">Harald J.W. Müller-Kirsten</a>: <i>Introduction to Quantum Mechanics: Schrödinger Equation and Path Integral.</i> 2nd edition, World Scientific, Singapore 2012.</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Weblinks">Weblinks</h2></div>
<div class="sisterproject" style="margin:0.1em 0 0 0;"><span class="noviewer" style="display:inline-block; line-height:10px; min-width:1.6em; text-align:center;" aria-hidden="true" role="presentation"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Wiktionary"></span></span></span><b><a href="https://de.wiktionary.org/wiki/Pfadintegral" class="extiw external" title="wikt:Pfadintegral">Wiktionary: Pfadintegral</a></b>&nbsp;– Bedeutungserklärungen, Wortherkunft, Synonyme, Übersetzungen</div>
<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Path_integral">Jean Zinn-Justin <i>Path Integral</i>, Scholarpedia</a></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Einzelnachweise_und_Fußnoten"><span id="Einzelnachweise_und_Fu.C3.9Fnoten"></span>Einzelnachweise und Fußnoten</h2></div>
<ol class="references">
<li id="cite_note-zj96-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-zj96_1-0">a</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-zj96_1-1">b</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="book">Jean Zinn-Justin: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Quantum field theory and critical phenomena</cite>. Clarendon Press, Oxford 1996, ISBN 0-19-851882-X (englisch).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Pfadintegral&amp;rft.au=Jean+Zinn-Justin&amp;rft.btitle=Quantum+field+theory+and+critical+phenomena&amp;rft.date=1996&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=019851882X&amp;rft.place=Oxford&amp;rft.pub=Clarendon+Press" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Norbert Wiener: <i>The Average of an Analytic Functional.</i> PNAS 7 (9), 253–260, 1. September 1921.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">G. Wentzel: <cite style="font-style:italic">Zur Quantenoptik</cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic">Z. Physik</cite>. <span style="white-space:nowrap">Band<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>22</span>, 1924, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>193–199</span> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zeitschrift-fuer-physik-a-atoms-and-nuclei_1924_22/page/192/mode/2up">archive.org</a>).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Pfadintegral&amp;rft.atitle=Zur+Quantenoptik&amp;rft.au=G.+Wentzel&amp;rft.btitle=Z.+Physik&amp;rft.date=1924&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=193-199&amp;rft.volume=22" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">G. Wentzel: <cite style="font-style:italic">Zur Quantentheorie des Röntgenbremsspektrums</cite>. In: <cite style="font-style:italic">Z. Physik</cite>. <span style="white-space:nowrap">Band<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>27</span>, 1924, <span style="white-space:nowrap">S.<span style="display:inline-block;width:.2em">&nbsp;</span>257–284</span> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/zeitschrift-fuer-physik-a-atoms-and-nuclei_1924_27/page/256/mode/2up">archive.org</a>).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Pfadintegral&amp;rft.atitle=Zur+Quantentheorie+des+R%C3%B6ntgenbremsspektrums&amp;rft.au=G.+Wentzel&amp;rft.btitle=Z.+Physik&amp;rft.date=1924&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=257-284&amp;rft.volume=27" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Salvatore Antoci, Dierck-E. Liebscher: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dierck-e-liebscher.de/publikationen/wentzel-gregor.pdf"><i>Wentzel’s path integrals.</i></a> (PDF; 135&nbsp;kB). Int. J. Theor. Phys. Bd. 37, S. 531–535 (1998). Danach stieß <a href="Thomas_S._Kuhn" title="Thomas S. Kuhn">Thomas S.&nbsp;Kuhn</a> Mitte der 1960er Jahre auf den Beitrag von Wentzel über einen Brief von Dirac von 1925, der damals einer der wenigen war (neben <a href="Max_von_Laue" title="Max von Laue">Max von Laue</a>), die Wentzels Arbeit beachteten.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">S. Antoci, D.E. Liebscher: <i>The third way to quantum mechanics is the forgotten first.</i> Ann. Fondation Louis de Broglie, Bd. 21, S. 349–367 (1996).</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-7">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Dirac: <i>The Lagrangian in Quantum Mechanics.</i> Physikalische Zeitschrift der Sowjetunion Babd 3, 1933, S. 64.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Feynman: <i>Space-time approach to non-relativistic quantum mechanics.</i> Rev. Mod. Phys., Band 20, 1948, S. 367–387.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-kh82-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-kh82_9-0">a</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-kh82_9-1">b</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-kh82_9-2">c</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="book">K. Huang: <cite class="lang" lang="en" dir="auto" style="font-style:italic">Quarks Leptons &amp; Gauge Fields</cite>. World Scientific, 1982 (englisch).<span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&amp;rfr_id=info:sid/de.wikipedia.org:Pfadintegral&amp;rft.au=K.%26%2332%3BHuang&amp;rft.btitle=Quarks+Leptons+%26+Gauge+Fields&amp;rft.date=1982&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pub=World+Scientific" style="display:none">&nbsp;</span></span></span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-FokkPlanckDeriv-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-FokkPlanckDeriv_10-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Die Herleitung eines Pfadintegrals zu einer Fokker-Planck-Gleichung kann nach demselben Schema erfolgen.</span>
</li>
<li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-11">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"> Ein Beispiel gibt das Produkt aus zwei Faktoren, von denen der erste eine unter Umständen gegen Unendlich divergierende Konstante ist, während der zweite Faktor eine nach <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}" loading="lazy"></span> differenzierbare Funktion darstellt. Dann ist der <i>Logarithmus des Produktes</i> auf jeden Fall nach <span class="mwe-math-element mwe-math-element-inline"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle x}">
<semantics>
<mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD">
<mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0">
<mi>x</mi>
</mstyle>
</mrow>
<annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle x}</annotation>
</semantics>
</math></span><img src="./_assets_/eb734a37dd21ce173a46342d1cc64c92/87f9e315fd7e2ba406057a97300593c4802b53e4.svg" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.338ex; width:1.33ex; height:1.676ex;" alt="{\displaystyle x}" loading="lazy"></span> differenzierbar, wobei die unendliche Konstante entfällt. Die Hinzufügung eines dritten Faktors ergibt bei Logarithmierung die Addition eines zusätzlichen Summanden usw.</span>
</li>
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